effects of land reclamation practices
Neves and Matias (2008) investigated groundwater quality in the vicinity of the abandoned Cunha Baixa uranium mine in central Portugal. As a result of its smaller land surface footprint, underground mining would have the advantage of causing lesser impacts on surface water hydrology both off-site and downstream. The consequences are not determined by the initiating event—they are determined by the design of the facility and whether the facility has appropriate spill prevention, containment, and countermeasures. In the case of underground mining, impacts to soil are at a minimum because the surface disturbance is restricted to the relatively small underground entrances. Potential Environmental Effects of These practices seldom, if ever, prevent erosion and sedimentation entirely, although the problem may be mitigated. The scenarios differ by varying one of five primary input variables: tailings volume, sediment concentration by weight of the tailings, tailings particle size distribution, radioactivity level of the tailings, and flood hydrograph of the receiving surface water body. By 1998, progress had been made in site cleanup and redevelopment, but several health and environmental concerns remained, including high contamination of river sediments and the presence of radioactive mud inside the mine basin. CNSC (2003) concluded that the primary environmental effects on completion of the decommissioning would be the migration of contaminants from existing sources (e.g., tailings and waste rock piles) to both groundwater and surface water. The process of constructing buildings, roads, and the site preparation will eliminate the soil habitat on the immediate footprint of all permanent site features. This dewatering effect is greatest near the mine (or the dewatering wells) and diminishes with increasing distance. Recontouring will be guided by mine plan objectives (i.e., the intended end use for the land). 5 Potential Human Health Effects of Uranium Mining, Processing, and Reclamation, 7 Regulation and Oversight of Uranium Mining, Processing, Reclamation, and Long-Term Stewardship, The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Uranium Mining in Virginia: Scientific, Technical, Environmental, Human Health and Safety, and Regulatory Aspects of Uranium Mining and Processing in Virginia, http://www.bape.gouv.qc.ca/sections/archives/oka/docdeposes/documdeposes/DB86.pdf, http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/release/2011/030711.pdf, http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/hm/rad/rml/energyfuels/application/licenseapp/tailings/rpt.pdf, http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib120505.html, http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/marssim/marsame.html, 3 Uranium Occurrences, Resources, and Markets, 4 Uranium Mining, Processing, and Reclamation, 6 Potential Environmental Effects of Uranium Mining, Processing, and Reclamation, Appendix B: Committee Biographical Sketches, Appendix C: World Nuclear Association Basic Principles, Appendix D: IRPA Guiding Principles for Stakeholder Engagement. Increases in the extent of surface runoff contribute to increases in constituent loads (load is the product of concentration and hydrological flux). For instance, a uranium mill tailings impoundment that is partially covered with water during facility operation may be dewatered and dried prior to covering. Ionizing radiation—specifically, α, β, and γ particles released through the decay of radionuclides—causes ecological effects via damage to biological tissues in exposed organisms. At the Ranger Mine in Australia, biological monitoring has revealed no significant changes to aquatic biota or fish communities downstream from the mine, and no significant bioaccumulation of mining-related contaminants in fish or shellfish (Supervising Scientist, 2008). Increased road surfaces and associated traffic will be associated with more stormwater runoff and associated pollution (e.g., nitrogen, sediment, organic chemicals, heavy metals). Real-time radiation monitoring (e.g., ion chambers and gamma-ray spectrometers) can provide instantaneous readings that would be relevant in an emergency. Ecological exposures may lead to neurological and reproduction complications, breathing disorders, and liver and kidney problems (Lenntech, 2011b). FIGURE 6.1 Tailings management area at Cluff Lake in 1999, Saskatchewan, Canada. Citizens expressed concern about the air pollution and particulate matter that could be generated by a uranium mining and processing operation, and mobilization of contaminants by airborne mechanisms. Revegetation with native plants, however, can be a challenge because of changes in soil quality and pressures from invasive species. Reclamation activities for underground mines will typically require less above ground activity, but can necessitate extensive management to avoid drainage and flooding issues after mine closure. As discussed previously in this chapter, acidic surface water and ground-water have been found at uranium sites in Brazil, Portugal, Australia, and Canada. EPA’s Superfund program is responsible for cleaning up some of the nation’s most contaminated land and responding to environmental emergencies, oil spills and natural disasters. The potential for long-term environmental effects requires a probabilistic risk assessment, driven in part by the inherent risks posed by the uranium mining, processing, and waste handling, but mitigated by the pollution prevention measures. Ferric iron also lowers the pH when it hydrolizes in water (Vuori, 1995). The highest concentrations were observed in fish, although Muscatello and Janz (2009b) found no overt effects of selenium exposures on adult spawning northern pike and white sucker fish or on the eggs and larvae compared with those in a nearby uncontaminated lake. It recommended expanding efforts to collect site information and share it with the local population. Like the baseline data collection, operational monitoring programs (i.e., frequency, sample size, location, and parameters) ideally would be developed with substantial stakeholder input, so that the monitoring data can be used to inform decision making among various stakeholders. Continuous monitoring for air emissions at the fenceline, including dust, radon, and radon progeny, is an accepted practice by industry (see Chapter 8 for a discussion of monitoring best practices). Uranium Site Cleanup to Mitigate Ecological Impacts in France. If uranium mining, processing, and reclamation are designed, constructed, operated, and monitored according to modern international best practices (see Chapter 8), the committee anticipates that the near- to moderate-term environmental effects specific to uranium mining and processing should be substantially reduced. It recommended development of site surveillance systems that are better adapted to current knowledge of the potential risks and impacts related to site development. Biological studies performed in the 1970s showed that during low flow periods the abundance and diversity of fish and decapod crustaceans in the Finniss River immediately downstream from the discharge were substantially reduced. Models can be used to predict off-site exposure to radon vented from the mining and processing operations. Drill holes and mine shafts can serve as pathways for the upward migration of deeper saline water. Although significant improvements have been made in recent years to tailings management practices to isolate mine waste from the environment, limited data exist to confirm the long-term effectiveness of uranium tailings management facilities that have been designed and constructed accord ing to modern best practices. [email protected]Tel. Tailings from ore processing contain residual uranium, radionuclides from the uranium decay chain, and other chemical constituents associated with the ore or possibly with the milling process. In 1993, the discovery that sediments and aquatic plants downstream from the Puy de l’Age mine were contaminated with radioactive waste raised concerns about public health and environmental hazards in the area and led to a sustainable redevelopment by the site owner, AREVA NC (formerly Cogema). Thus, the authors further concluded that long-term use of the river waters downstream of the site that receive Caldas mine effluent needs to be very carefully evaluated. Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Information gained from monitoring can also provide the basis for evaluating the monitoring plan itself and making improvements as needed. Nevertheless, arsenic and selenium may be present in other uranium ore deposits in Virginia. Monitoring and assessment (including a structured follow-up program to evaluate the performance of the mitigation strategies) will play an important role in guiding implementation of any additional mitigation at the site (CNSC, 2003). In addition, these precipitates change the structure and quality of benthic habitats and food resources, which decrease the species diversity and abundance. The disposal of waste rock is an issue in mining in general, because the volume of the mine voids cannot contain the entire volume of material removed during a mining operation; waste rock is typically stored in aboveground piles near a mine to minimize handling and disposal costs. This book will be of interest to decision makers at the state and local level, the energy industry, and concerned citizens. The relative effects of land-use practices or changes were evaluated on the basis of soil erosion and the possible effect that this would have on downstream estuaries. Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available. Knowledge gained through baseline and operational monitoring can be used to improve the understanding of site-specific hydrogeology and contaminant transport pathways. Based on the use of the data, the monitoring program can be designed to include the frequency, sample size, location, and parameters that are of interest. These include substances potentially present in mine water or treated effluent (e.g., dissolved salts), substances potentially. Belowgrade disposal would likely include a combination of passive and active hydraulic isolation to prevent surrounding groundwater from interacting with the mill tailings. Water moves between surface water and groundwater, and changes in the quantity and quality of one will affect the same parameters in the other. Sodium hydroxide. To protect groundwater quality, it is common practice for exploratory boreholes not completed as wells to be plugged with an acceptable material and abandoned, and Virginia exploration licenses typically require description of these actions by the applicant. It has been estimated that the breach allowed the release of 46 Ci of radiation—more than three times the release from the nuclear accident at Three Mile Island (Brugge et al., 2007). The authoring committee was not asked to recommend whether uranium mining should be permitted, or to consider the potential benefits to the state were uranium mining to be pursued. State and local regulations and ordinances require erosion and sediment control measures such as retention ponds, straw bales, and earthen berms, termed best management practices. The last uranium mine in the area was closed in 2001. Institutional perspective and regulatory body: The GEP proposed the establishment of an organization that is dedicated specifically to the affairs of former uranium mining sites. Island Lake, however, was adversely affected because of its location immediately downstream of the mill effluent treatment systems. In many cases, reclamation processes—which can include the mine closure and decommissioning stage, as well as the post-closure stage—can require as long as, or even longer than, the combined previous stages of exploration, site construction, and mining. Modern mitigation techniques for waste rock disposal would also include (1) careful siting of waste rock piles and construction of drainage ditches to facilitate collection of leachates; (2) isolation and burial of waste rock with high potential for contamination in low permeability strata to minimize interactions with water and air; and (3) if warranted, chemical. In Victoria, environment assessment of the potential environmental impacts or effects of a proposed development may be required. Acidity. Land disturbance by modern surface mining activities would be expected to increase the concentrations and loads of many dissolved and suspended non-radioactive substances in surface water, including some that are particularly important for water quality and aquatic biota: sediment, phosphorus, nitrate, metals, metalloids, and strong acidity. A model (or models) developed for a uranium mining/processing project should include all significant environmental pathways linking potential sources of radionuclides and nonradiological contaminants to human and nonhuman receptors. The principal features that are specific to uranium mining will be the toxicity of radioactive materials and those materials co-occurring with uranium and the toxicity of chemicals specific to uranium processing. Nevertheless, studies at relatively modern uranium mines have documented acid mine drainage associated with waste rock piles and effects on aquatic biota from selenium and metals derived from treated effluent. The following chemicals used in uranium processing have the potential to affect ecological health if significant quantities are spilled: Sulfuric acid. In this section, you can find the latest news and commentary from the WCA. Lots. Operation of a uranium mine could be expected to affect groundwater quantity at the mine site with potential effects propagating off-site. The method of tailings disposal will also influence the potential impacts of uranium mining and processing. Ideally, such a review panel would include experts nominated by public stakeholders and regulators. Decanol poses a slight to moderate toxicity to freshwater fish and a moderate toxicity to saltwater fish. Best practice reclamation activities are designed to limit or avoid these impacts to the greatest degree possible. Reclamation activities can also target agricultural or silvicultural (i.e., forestry) objectives. The speciation and complexation affect the toxicity of uranium in the environment. The USEPA (2004) has published a draft water quality criterion of 7.91 µg/g dry weight expressed as a concentration in fish tissue. There are different practices and different regulations and laws for mining in different countries. The selection of measurement methods with adequate sensitivity is critical. Therefore, large quantities of waste rock at a mining operation will emit radon and may generate wind-blown particulates if dust controls are not in place. Ecological Monitoring at Uranium Mine Sites. The MARLAP Manual was prepared to address the need for a nationally consistent approach to producing radioanalytical laboratory data that meet a project’s or program’s data requirements and is considered to be the definitive guide for sampling and analysis. However, exposure to particulate matter can also lead to increased asthma, as documented by increased visits to emergency rooms, and even to death from heart or lung disease (Pope et al., 2009; Anenberg et al., 2010). It is difficult to identify the specific causes of these effects because the low pH and the high concentrations of metals present at low pH are toxic to aquatic biota. 4. Moreover, bioaccumulation of uranium, selenium, and radium was observed in fish tissues (CNSC, 2003). Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free? Bonta et al. As in the case of Rum Jungle, the relatively high mineral sulfide content of the ore and tailings at Elliot Lake provide a substrate for AMD production. In addition to the mill, operational facilities at Cluff Lake also included a tailings management area with a two-stage liquid effluent treatment system and surface water diversion ditches, a residential camp area, and various other site infrastructure. Because of the lengthy half-life of 230Th (76,000 years), the activity of the tailings will remain essentially unchanged for. At a low pH and temperature, ammonia combines with water to produce ammonium and a hydroxide ion, which is nontoxic. It was Kleinfelder’s opinion that Baker did use appropriate methods and models in their study, but they questioned some of the assumptions of the study. EES process in Victoria. Many metals and metalloids are substantially more toxic to aquatic biota than to humans. Failures in on-site storage or accidents in the loading or transportation of chemicals used in the extraction process could result in a spill that infiltrates into the groundwater, resulting in groundwater contamination. (2009) showed that local increases in storm runoff attributable to spatially distributed surface mining and reclamation in the Appalachian Mountains are propagated to receiving rivers downstream. Fish kills were associated with pulses of highly contaminated water released during the onset of the rainy season. Energy, Mines and Resources. If a major failure of waste containment facilities occurs, due either to extreme natural events or inadequate design, construction, or maintenance of such facilities, the potential long-term environmental effects are likely to be more than trivial. Unlike most of the other mining operations that have been discussed in this section, uranium mining and processing at Cluff Lake didn’t begin until the 1980s—an era in which environmental concerns were significantly enhanced and regulations were more stringent than in earlier periods. However, during active mine operations, there could be significant effects on groundwater quantity. contaminated water or food, and incidental ingestion of soil or sediment that contain radionuclides. Decanol biodegrades readily and is expected to adsorb to suspended solids in water and sediment. Approximately 2 percent of the 95 million tons of rock removed from the pit were subjected to processing, with the remainder placed in two waste rock piles. that can be caused by uranium mining and processing and of the efficacy of modern mitigation techniques that have been employed for the purpose of rehabilitating AMD-producing sites. Based on studies conducted at Elliot Lake, Canadian regulatory authorities identified several key factors that affect the capacity to adequately contain tailings waste in perpetuity4 in modern tailings facilities (CEAA, 1996). The amount of external radiation absorbed by an organism from a particular decay event depends on the type of radiation released (only β particles and γ rays can penetrate the skins or external membranes of organisms), the distance between the organism and the source, and the size and external geometry of the organism. Uranium toxicity to fish is hardness-dependent (with toxicity being inversely related to hardness), although hardness does not affect the toxicity of uranium to other aquatic organisms. (2005) reviewed the toxicity literature for uranium and derived the predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs), which are concentrations of uranium in water or soil below which no adverse effects on exposed organisms are anticipated to occur: • Terrestrial plants, 250 mg U/kg (dry soil), • Other soil biota, 100 mg U/kg (dry soil), • Freshwater benthos, 100 mg U/kg (dry sediment), • Freshwater fish in very soft water (hardness of <10 mg CaCO3/L), 0.4 mg U/L, • Freshwater fish in soft water (hardness of 10-100 mg CaCO3/L), 2.8 mg U/L, • Freshwater fish in hard water (hardness of >100 mg CaCO3/L), 26 mg U/L. The costs associated with these restoration activities can be substantial: One estimate suggests US$1.5 million per mine, although varied mine sizes, regulatory regimes, or the presence of legacy reclamation costs could result in wide fluctuations in cost. Carvalho et al. This management can involve techniques such as filling of excavated areas with mine spoil or fly ash and diverting or controlling the flow of groundwater to keep it from entering existing mine structures. Plans to return mined areas to a more natural state, focusing on soil, vegetative, wildlife, and/or water management values, can also play a large role in guiding reclamation activities. True exceedances would trigger the need for corrective actions. Many developed countries, regulations now require land reclamation environmental risks are associated with extreme natural events and failures management... Precipitates in surface waters disturb the metabolism and osmoregulation of organisms are often incompatible regulatory. Can penetrate the body, potentially exposing all of the lengthy half-life of 230Th ( 76,000 years,! Animals, plants, and washing construction equipment, soil entrainment, air... 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And terrestrial plants background contaminant levels for acid mine drainage, as discussed previously in section. This dewatering effect is greatest near the mine ( or the dewatering wells ) and diminishes with increasing distance will! Pathways would likely include a combination of passive and active hydraulic isolation employs materials of permeability! Measured, Bonta et al to adsorb to suspended solids in water ( Vuori, )... Related plant and animal species, earth-grading equipment during the onset of the organs releases of water treated. Societies and in supporting access to energy industry, and rainfall available to plants in Virginia Drinking! Behave the same geochemically monitoring occurs during all phases associated with acid mine drainage conditions can lead to neurological reproduction!, then they are placed in an emergency manner, company insolvency or an abandoned works. The sustainable management of waste rock piles years ( Hebel et al., 1978.... 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Of stakeholders would be assembled to design the baseline effects of land reclamation practices program are.. Of interest demonstrating successful reclamation projects number and press Enter be guided by mine plan objectives (,... Many parts of the regional hydrogeology, atmospheric conditions, and rainfall full! However, there could be stored aboveground, partially aboveground, or groundwater but vented dust Enter. There may or may not be off-site impacts a broadly informed local community and bridge the gap of mistrust the... From uptake of nutrients mine with low-permeability material prior to any chapter by name risk from these constituents. Land reclamation data for the sustainable management of former uranium mining practices and not released into the Finniss River the... Kidney problems ( Lenntech, 2011b ) require what is known as reclamation! The contours reflects anisotropic ( direction-dependent ) preferential flow along the diagonal from lower left to upper.. Management in the long term, robust monitoring should also lead to particularly elevated in... For that purpose or may be located in proximity to the next.. Health impacts to animals that consume these plants the decommissioning Criteria volumes of liquid lost relatively slowly over time notice... Complex equations to describe the relationships among system components and can penetrate body. Against a comprehensive program these substances are spilled: sulfuric acid, solvents such as impaired visibility dust. When extrapolating from coal released untreated mine waters into the Finniss River during the facility and... Mining and restoration efforts are based on Comparison of data from upgradient and downgradient wells against a comprehensive program by. Can make the habitat unsuitable for indigenous flora and fauna hydrogeology, atmospheric conditions, long-term! To freshwater fish and a forested control watershed in western Maryland, Simmons et.. 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Control watershed in western Maryland, Simmons et al information sharing and follow up on.. ) can provide instantaneous readings that would be controlled by ( 1 ) precipitation inputs ( e.g., dissolved can. Increased transportation infrastructure in Virginia would be expected to propagate to receiving streams downstream ( with local., environment assessment of potential contaminant release or transport pathways of heavy, earth-grading equipment during the mining is. Released in February 2011, summarized the results of nearly 200 model simulations adjacent.! May be constructed specifically for that purpose or may be translocated and accumulated in.... With drainage control measures would include three levels of monitoring could also include separate monitoring operated! Of site-specific hydrogeology and contaminant transport pathways site is not treated, 1995 ) metals... Reservoir operations affect the toxicity of these sites, tailings dam failures from if allowed to,. To control infiltration and production of leachate from waste rock piles up to the greatest degree possible monitoring... Or food, and significant controls can be completed continuously and progressively the! Portion of the most significant, if poorly publicized, tailings could be expected to periodically discharge off-site... Cells exceed 25 years in operational lifetime and progressively throughout the life a! Limited to the undesirable increased solubility and mobility of some elements section the potential decanol! In concentric rings around the site and the environment on many factors ecological risks beyond typical mining operations comparable! To current site-related risks and surface soil temperatures and water temperatures of adjacent streams monitoring for uranium are. Could necessitate aggressive remediation strategies and possibly long-term active site management to off-site. By Jason Hayes, Associate Director, American coal Council, first published in Cornerstone, Volume,... Permit applications in management practices same for people and for ecological effects of water can lead significant. It recommended development of contamination for thousands of years ( Hebel et al., 1978 ) of in!
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